Hearth, Home, and Hedonism

The nineteenth century led to changes in how society viewed the gender roles of men and women. Those most affected by these changes were the women, whom saw the few freedoms they had disappear in the developing world. Women had increasingly limited legal and economic liberties, increasingly controlled by the men in their lives. In his essay, John Stuart Mills’ explains this suppressive relationship between men and women in his 1869 essay The Subjection of Women. Mills essay mentions a multitude of ways in which women were subjugated by men, especially in the act of marriage and by the laws perpetuated by governments. His most definitive argument against the continued subjection of women, is likening the relationship to that of slavery; men’s complete control over women’s lives. Mills argues that if women were given the ability to participate in the economy on equal standing as men society overall would benefit: there would be more competition increasing market efficiency and social welfare would increase, as marriages would be on a more successful if women contributed to the relationship the same as men.

Various works of literature from the time period reflect society’s view of women and the stereotypes placed upon them. These works also reveal the power that men had in society: what they could do and the leeway they were given in regards to their actions. In Honoré de Balzac’s Cousin Bette and Theodor Fontane’s Effi Briest, nineteenth century society’s idea of middle and upper class women in France and Germany is articulated.

Fontane’s novel Effie Briest, is centered upon an upper class family in German society following the unification of Germany in the 1870s. In the novel, Effi Briest, as a young lady from minor nobility, is married to an older man of higher status, Baron Innstetten. In the novel, Fontane illustrates how upper class women were held separate from the rest of society through the treatment and expectations of Effi by other characters such as her family, friends, husband, and even her lover. Baron Innstetten expected his wife to uphold the image of her position, maintaining her innocent personality and to host others of similar status. Innstetten expected Effi to fulfill a roll she was not suited for or trained in, as her parents had let her run around with her friends. Effi, by society’s demands, was to be at home and sustain her husband’s honor through her own actions, which she failed to do by having an affair with Major Crampas, which would later have devastating consequences for Effi: the ending of her marriage, the loss of her child, her disownment, and the fall into depression finally succumbing fully to her hinted at nervousness.

Throughout the book, Fontane’s realistic portrayal of society’s perceptions of the time is a window into how women were viewed by others, women and men alike. Women were subservient to their husbands, meant to obey their will and not oppose anything they say. This is revealed in a conversation between Effi’s parents shortly after her marriage to Innstetten while she is on her honeymoon travels:

The poor treatment of women is further demonstrated when upon the revelation of Effi’s affair with Crampas, Innstetten immediately divorces her and takes their daughter Annie away from her. While the Baron does challenge Crampas over the affair, it is as a protection of his own honor, instead of for Effi. Fontane writes that Effi soon falls into a deep depression and succumbs to nervousness following her parents disownment, though the later take her back after discovering her illness. When Effi dies, she tells her mother of her forgiveness for Innstetten and his actions. The behaviors exhibited in Effi Briest establish that women were meant to be dependent on the men in their lives and that without this they were without the ability to survive on their own. This is reflective of what Mills writes in his essay, that the society of the time assumes that women are unable to handle themselves and by nature are less strong than men and need to rely on them, even though they are not given the chance to be anything other than caregivers and housewives.

Balzac’s novel Cousin Bette focuses on the life of a middle-aged, middle-class woman, Lisbeth Fischer whom is called Bette, attempting to ruin the life of her cousin, Adeline Hulot. The novel delves into the middle-class when the middle class was only just emerging into the upper echelons of society. Balzac’s portrayal of women takes on many forms: the dutiful housewife, the middle-age virgin, the mistress, and the maid.

The interpretation of women’s nature in this book is supportive of the idea that women are best when they are homemakers, as Adeline is viewed as the most respectable within the novel. Adeline does not speak out against her husband despite his multiple affairs, she maintains the household, and she raised their two children. When, at the end of the book her husband leaves her for the maid, she dutifully dies of a broken heart. Bette’s characterization is that of the bitter old virgin, desperate to have what her cousin has that she does not, which she ultimately fails at achieving herself, despite her many machinations for it to be so. Bette shows the idea of what women would be without a man in their life, as the brief experience of happiness that Bette had was when she was about to marry. Valérie Marneffe conducted many affairs in her attempts to help Bette, presenting the idea that there were some women who would use men to get what they want by using their nature to bring men to bend to their will:

Both of these novels are demonstrative of the limitations of the women in them. Effi and Adeline, characters that in some ways mirror one another, were under the control of their husbands and had little freedom in which to conduct themselves, limited by the constraints of society. Bette, while she had more freedom, did not have much, as her only goal was to do better than her cousin in finding a husband that increased her status. Some of these limitations were explicit define by law, such as the right to own property or to work (outside of the lower class women in the factories).

If Effi had had more power within her marriage (whether it be legal or financial) she would not have had her daughter taken away without her consent. If Adeline had had more power, she could have divorced her husband for his multitude of affairs, and not faced the possibility of truly been left with nothing. If Bette was not limited by society, she may have been able to increase her status without having to rely on finding a suitable husband.

Mills argument that because society has not allowed women to act outside of the roles set for them by precedent, it is detrimental to the future of society. These books reveal that the stereotypes held by society were truthful. If women were able to have the freedoms that men had that were denied to them, then they would not have been as dependent on the men. Women would have had had a say over their property and their family, as either owners of what they brought to the marriage, financial contributors and as a parent to the children; as it was in the lower, working class families.